Biodiversify report

Biodiversify Report

overview
state of the industry
material analysis
methods & protocol
appendix & references

“Science has shown that in order to avoid runaway climate change and irreversible biodiversity loss, we need to transform the key systems which give structure to our world, including food, land and ocean use, infrastructure and the built environment, energy and extractives. It is no longer sufficient for individual companies to only address their own issues; wide transformational change is needed to meet global and societal sustainability goals. Companies can play an important role in catalysing such change. This might include engaging in cross-sectoral partnerships to advocate or drive system wide change, garnering public support for biodiversity friendly policy changes, rethinking of business strategy to focus on sustainability outcomes etc.”

Biodiversify

who are Biodiversify

Biodiversify is a conservation consultancy which advises a range of private, public and third sector clients who want to act for nature.

They work at the cutting-edge of scientific research to employ creative and disruptive techniques to challenge the status-quo of how biodiversity is managed in practice.

scope of report

Biodiversify were asked to impartially evaluate our shoes within the realms of expert, scientific knowledge.

All knowledge and data was sourced from peer reviewed scientific literature to give an objective evaluation of the sustainability of the shoes at hand.

Measuring the impact of the footwear industry is somewhat harder than for textiles. For example, focus tends to fall on the four or five major parts that make up every sneaker, but on average, sneakers have around 65 distinct parts including laces, thread, eyelets, lining, padding, reinforcement and lasting boards many of which are hidden or overlooked. These elements are vital to the performance, comfort and longevity of footwear and also cause environmental impact in a similar way to the larger components. Each part is often manufactured separately and sourced from a multitude of different materials from across the world before being assembled at a central location. Given that more than 60% of emissions come from manufacturing and raw material extraction it is essential that all components of footwear are considered during design. The environmental impact of footwear is therefore compounded by the complexity of design and assembly.

biodiversity and fashion

While awareness of environmental issues, particularly around GHGs, has grown in recent years, the fashion industry is just beginning to get to grips with its relationship with biodiversity loss. Biodiversity is a technical term to what many would consider to be nature; the interactions of different plants and animals that make up the land and seascapes that we live in. Biodiversity is the basis to many services that nature provides such as carbon storage, pollination, air regulation, fuelwood, freshwater and so on. The fashion industry sources many natural products, such as cotton, which are directly reliant on biodiversity meaning loss of biodiversity is a material risk to the industry as a whole.

Biodiversity loss is at a critical juncture with1million species threatened with extinction and population sizes of wild animals decreased by 60% from 1970 (10). Biodiversity is impacted in a number of ways, such as clearing habitat to make way for new farms, poor farm management such as monocropping and lack of habitat diversity and improper use of pesticides and fertilisers (11).Likewise the shift of use from synthetic to natural materials can have unintended biodiversity impacts due to logging or habitat clearing (12).

The footwear industry appears to be playing catch up even with the wider fashion sector when it comes to sustainability. Estimates suggest that only one in 29 pairs of sneakers are considered to be “eco-sneakers” and in reality is likely to be far fewer (13). When exploring the credentials of “eco-sneakers” in more detail, it appears their claims are limited (13). Using recycled plastic or biodegradable products for only a single part of the shoe leads to only modest reductions in GHGs compared to an average sneaker (10% less on average).

research findings

We suggest that natural rubber sourced from Indonesia is of high biodiversity risk to habitat destruction. There is currently limited threat from excessive nutrient loading. Overall, there is a low level of certainty on the risk of this material due to a lack of scientific research into its impacts in Indonesia.

Conservation International considers Indonesia to be one of the seventeen “megadiverse” countries, with the third largest extent of tropical forest (CBD, n.d.; Enrici & Hubacek, 2018). Therefore, understanding how activity within a company’s supply chain impacts this region should be of high priority. This is further magnified as the environmental performance of Indonesia was found to be poor by the Environmental Performance Index (EPI) (2020) – ranking 116/180 countries.

Natural rubber is sourced from rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis), which are native to South America but have since been established into other tropical regions, notably southeast Asia. Currently, Indonesia is the second largest exporter of natural rubber globally (Grow Asia, 2020; Reuters, 2021). Despite recent slumps in rubber sales likely due to the global pandemic, future projections expect sales to increase in line with the continued growth of developing nations economies, driving sales in the largest end-user of rubber the automotive industry (Business Wire, 2021).

Studies suggest that the conversion of forests into rubber monoculture plantations in Southeast Asia, has led to reductions in primate populations and 76% decline in bird, bat, and beetle species (Warren-thomas et al., 2015). The expansion of cash crops in Indonesia has led to levels of primary forest loss reaching higher levels than Brazil (Paoletti et al., 2018). The expansion of oil palm and rubber have been the key culprits of forest clearance over the last 30 years, with notable loss in the lowlands of Sumatra (Potapov et al., 2021). Much of the rubber produced in Indonesia comes from small holdings, with rough estimates suggesting that 60% of the rubber cultivations (systems where rubber trees are planted under the natural forest canopies) in Indonesia come from jungle rubber systems (Hua et al., 2021). Key provinces of production are South Sumatra, North Sumatra, Riau, Jambi and West Kalimantan. A benefit of most of the rubber coming from small holders is that traditional methods of management are likely being used, including low levels of fertilisers – reducing the threat of excessive nutrient loading (Umami et al., 2019).

“Interestingly, since primary forest is now scarce in Sumatra, conserving rubber agro-forests on small-holdings is now considered one of the few options for successfully supporting biodiversity and reducing emissions on the island (Villamor et al., 2014). However, current increases in the profitability of other land-uses, such as palm oil are pushing farmers away from this land management technique (Ibid, 2014).”

Biodiversify

In recent years, due to lower productivity and value of rubber, small-holders are shifting from natural rubber towards more profitable and productive palm-oil (Indonesia Investments, 2018; Grow Asia, 2020). This has led to an emerging transition to larger, private, monoculture plantations of rubber in Indonesia (Warren-Thomas et al., 2015). In the future this may lead to greater concerns surrounding nutrient loading, habitat loss and invasive species (Potapov et al., 2021). Interestingly, since primary forest is now scarce in Sumatra, conserving rubber agro-forests on small-holdings is now considered one of the few options for successfully supporting biodiversity and reducing emissions on the island (Villamor et al., 2014). However, current increases in the profitability of other land-uses, such as palm oil are pushing farmers away from this land management technique (Ibid, 2014).

However, it should be noted that the last year saw the lowest deforestation rates since records begun (-75%) in Indonesia (Jong, 2021). This has followed changes to moratoriums on clearing primary forest and licencing for forest clearance (notably related to palm oil production), although other factors must be accounted for such as wetter season, decline in palm-oil prices and the Covid-19 pandemic (ibid, 2021). Resurgence in these levels following this year should be monitored to see whether the governments new policies are having a positive impact on deforestation in the country (ibid, 2021).

Before recent years, despite commitments from the government of Indonesia and the international community, deforestation rates have not stabilised or decreased in the years since REDD+’s introduction in 2007 (Enrici & Hubacek, 2018). Additionally, despite some major company’s efforts to implement sustainable rubber within Indonesia (See Michelin Tyres x WWF; Otten et al., 2020) the impact has been limited and it is clear that currently it is ineffective and unsustainable for the communities (Otten et al., 2020).

The current political and development situation of Indonesia does increase the risk of this material:

“Under Indonesia’s NDC, the government allows up to 325,000 hectares (803,000 acres) of deforestation per year to reach its emissions reduction goal while leaving room for economic development. That means that by the 2030 deadline for the Paris Agreement, Indonesia could potentially clear 3.25 million hectares (8 million acres) of rainforest, an area larger than Belgium, and still call it a success. A 2018 report by the NGO Rainforest Foundation Norway shows this won’t be enough to cap the average global temperature increase at 1.5° Celsius as mandated under the Paris Agreement.” - Jong, 2021

What is needed is drastic legal measures to be taken for this industry to change but also be economically sufficient for the people who are part of it.

Currently there is limited consistent messaging around the carbon sequestration potential of rubber trees, with different systems and regions having different potentials (Li et al., 2008; Annamalainathan et al., 2011; Yiping et al., 2014; Villamor et al., 2014; Blagodatsky et al., 2016; Brahma et al., 2017). However, it is understood that despite the carbon sequestration of rubber trees they cannot make up the emissions or biodiversity losses encountered from converting intact forest and even degraded forests (Warren-thomas et al., 2018).

In relation to other forms of pollution, it is likely that the impact in the region is low if the traditional practices are being carried out on the rubber plantations as well as the continued jungle forest techniques for production in the main producing regions of Indonesia. However, as pressure mounts to increase production of rubber and access to more modern techniques spreads, the threat from other pollution is likely to increase (e.g., soil erosion due to lower density leaf crown, increased machinery use, and increased chemical use). Another factor that should be considered is the chemicals needed to process latex into rubber e.g. ammonia and formic acid in waste waters, which paired with the low EPI 2020 ranking (68/134) of Indonesia’s wastewater management may pose an environmental threat. However, there is limited information on this impact.

It should also be considered that the sole does consist of other, smaller amounts of materials that are currently less understood and known including, 10% unspecified fillers (likely to be plastic based), 3% additives (likely to be an anti-UV agent to prevent yellowing) and 1% pigments (for colouring). The likely presence of plastic within this material does increase concern for energy use and plastic pollution however, it should be recognised that aspect climate projects have tried as far as possible to eliminate plastic from their product.

assessment and comparison

future recommendations

It is unclear how Indonesia’s rubber industry will change in the future. The last year has caused anomalies within records of production, demand, and land-use % changes. There have been some efforts by the government to reduce pressure on primary forests although it is unclear how truly effective this has been. Currently the government has not been ambitious in their goals for deforestation rates, and this has raised concerns among the international community. It is likely that progress in Indonesia will need to be closely monitored over the years to come.

Most of the sole material does consist of natural, renewable rubber which is a positive for avoiding plastic within the product as far as possible – which was a key priority for aspect climate projects. Another key design feature of the natural rubber sole was its longevity, which was another key feature for aspect climate projects in their design, maximising the lifespan of the shoe and reducing the amount of waste sent to landfill. In the future, aspect climate projects may wish to work with their supplier to understand what the added substances going into the sole are, as well as continuing to explore innovations into other plant-based solutions for outsoles.

For the last year aspect climate projects have worked hard to try and source more sustainable rubber options, including FSC, recycled rubber and Fair Rubber. However, given the current global pandemic and the lack of demand from larger markets, this has proven near impossible without excess amounts of material being brought potentially increasing the amount of waste produced. It should be acknowledged that aspect climate projects have worked to follow the Mitigation Hierarchy model to eliminate biodiversity and climatic risks as far as currently possible. Therefore, offsetting of impacts should be considered for this material, until another option becomes available. This may include supporting REDD+ projects within the sourcing region.

research findings

Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) husk is considered low risk in all categories of risk identified. As coconut husk is an abundant waste material from the coconut industry, we suggest that the demand for coconut husk is lower than the demand for coconut itself. This means no extra resources such as land, water, fertilizer, or pesticide are being used to produce this material. Furthermore, by utilising an abundant waste product aspect climate projects are reducing the pollution and waste of another supply chain. Due to the nuanced nature of the material aspect climate projects are using, there is limited understanding as to how much energy that is being used during production of this material or the chemical/water usage during production, therefore with greater understanding of these areas the risk assessment may need to be updated accordingly.

“no extra resources such as land, water, fertilizer, or pesticide are being used to produce this material. Furthermore, by utilising an abundant waste product Aspect are reducing the pollution and waste of another supply chain.”

Biodiversify

The threat from climate change, as currently projected for Sri Lanka, means that in the future the yield of coconuts from the Sri Lanka may be reduced impacting the future sustainability of supplying coconut waste from this region in the future (Ranasinghe, n.d.). However, due to the reliance of the region on coconuts for food security it is likely that they will work hard to increase resilience in this industry over time (Erandathie, 2016).

Something that should be considered is that due to this material largely consisting of coconut fibres, it is mixed with natural latex to increase the comfort of the material for the insole. However, it is currently unknown how much natural latex is used to mix with the coconut husk, with the 12.7%consisting of both the coconut and the latex together. Therefore, as previously discussed for natural rubber, the natural latex industry unless sustainably sourced possess a huge risk to global biodiversity. The risk is largely attributable to the high ecosystem value of Malaysia, which is home to a range of endangered and endemic species, and the land pressure in the region from other cash crops, notably palm oil. However, it is understood that the percentage content of this material is believed to be low and that understanding the difficult trade-off faced by aspect climate projects to reduce petroleum-based plastics in their supply chain, which would traditionally be used.

assessment and comparison

future recommendations

For the risk to stay as low as they currently are for this material, it is important that coconut husk remains to be sourced as a waste material from the coconut industry. If farmers begin to invest in coconut plantations due to the growing demand for husk or increased income from husk, then the risks associated with coconuts sourced from Sri Lanka would need to be urgently considered. Furthermore, if upon reflection the natural latex makes up a large amount of the final material it might be wise for us to exchange the environmental impacts of the Malaysian rubber industry –possible movement to sustainably sourced/managed rubber may be a call of action.

research findings

Pineapple Leaf Fibre (PALF) constitutes the third most abundant material in option which uses a Pinatex upper. All categories were ranked as low risk. As PALF is made from pineapple (Ananascomosus) leaves, which are an abundant waste material from the pineapple industry (Asim et al.,2015; Kengkhetkit et al., 2018), we suggest that the demand for PALF is lower than the demand for pineapple itself. This means that no extra resources such as land, water, fertilizer, or pesticide are being used to produce PALF. Furthermore, by utilising a waste product Aspect are reducing the pollution and waste of another supply chain.

There is currently limited literature regarding the energy demands, water, or chemical demands for producing PALF, thus with greater understanding of these areas the risk assessment may need to be updated accordingly. The greatest threat from this material is the transportation from the Philippines, although this is still considered to be low.

“the demand for PALF is lower than the demand for pineapple itself. This means that no extra resources such as land, water, fertilizer, or pesticide are being used to produce PALF. Furthermore, by utilising a waste product Aspect are reducing the pollution and waste of another supply chain.”

Biodiversify

Something that should be considered is that due to this material largely consisting of plant-based material (72%) it must be mixed with something more durable, in this case (10%) polyurethane was used by the brand company Piñatex. This has implications for microplastic pollution. However, by reinforcing the material with this as stated, the durability of the shoe increases and thus the lifespan of the shoe.

Furthermore, it must be considered that alternatively the upper would be made from either a much higher percentage of plastic or leather which research suggests would have a much greater negative impact on the environment in all categories of risk (Rosegrant and Sombilla, 2019). Furthermore, as the material largely consists of plant-based material (including the bioplastic, polylactic acid (18%))at the end of the materials life 90% of it will be biodegradable.

assessment and comparison

future recommendations

At present PALF appears to be a promising material for use within the apparel and footwear industry. For the risk to stay as low as they currently are for this material, it is important that PALF remains to be sourced as a waste material from the pineapple industry. If in the long-term farmers begin to invest in expanding pineapple plantations due to the growing demand for PALF or increased profit from PALF, then the risks associated with Pineapples sourced from the Philippines would need to be considered.

research findings

It is currently unclear where the polyurethane (PU) was originally made, or the energy sources used to produce it. However, it has been assumed that the companies who produced the final materials that the PU is bonded with has made/sourced within the same region.

Currently, there seems to be a lack of accessible environmental impact assessments regarding polyurethane production. However, there are some assumptions that can be made about this material such as the risk to natural habitats. PU is a petroleum-based plastic that relies upon the oil industry. Conventional oil can be sourced off-shore by drilling at sea, this can result in catastrophic oil spills, which although infrequent and unlikely, when they do occur can have extreme, long-term impacts on ecosystems (Schmidt, 2012; Troisi et al., 2016). Additionally, offshore noise pollution from drilling activity can also impact aquatic lifeforms, with many endangered species impacted (AmecFoster, 2016; Farmer et al., 2018). On-shore drilling activity for conventional oil can also take place and has negative impacts on habitats and ecosystems, which in areas of poor environmental legislation occur more frequently. Large amounts of toxins can be leached into local water sources, noise pollution can push local ecosystems away from their habitats, whilst habitats can be destroyed to make way for drilling and processing plants (Amec Foster, 2016).

“the threat of micro-plastic pollution from shoes (especially such that have been produced with such a low quantity of plastic) is low compared to other products, notably clothing that is frequently washed.”

Biodiversify

There is a gap in knowledge of how much energy is used to produce PU coating, though we have assumed that non-renewable energy sources were used to make and there is no carbon sequestration potential for this material, thus the threat is high for this material.

Plastic pollution is a very well-known problem that humanity faces. Throughout the lifespan of the PU micro-plastics will be shred into the environment and will eventually end up in our water systems. It is widely accepted in public debate that microplastics are a huge cause for concern to marine ecosystems and the persistence of endangered species. Laboratory based research suggests micro-plastics have a negative impact on marine life (Cole et al., 2013; Browne et al., 2013; Setälä etal., 2014). However, their impact on aquatic life in the natural world is suggested to be less conclusive(Nelms et al., 2019; Botterell et al., 2019). Furthermore, the threat of micro-plastic pollution from shoes(especially such that have been produced with such a low quantity of plastic) is low compared to other products, notably clothing that is frequently washed.

assessment and comparison

future recommendations

It is important to note that only 7% of the shoe with the Appleskin upper consists of PU (and only 3% for the shoe with the Pinatex upper), which is minimal compared to many shoes on the market today. Additionally, it should be considered that the PU coating helps to increase the durability of the material used – essential when using plant-based materials – thus increasing the final products lifespan. Furthermore, petroleum-based plastics do not cause any risk from excessive nutrition loading. However, in terms of future sustainability threat, the finite nature of crude oil should be considered when sourcing this material for a long-term perspective of its sustainability.

research findings

We suggest that recycled polyester (rPET) posed a medium risk in all applicable categories, due to the sourcing from China where environmental regulations are low and the reliance on non-renewable energy sources for production.

rPET reduces the amount of plastic waste within the environment, having a positive impact on reducing waste from other supply chains and the impact of large plastic waste in the environment. Currently, there is such an abundance of plastic waste that it is unlikely that plastic is being produced to keep up with the demand of rPET, thus causing no new threat to habitat destruction through land-pressure and drilling activities.

Overall, the energy used to produce rPET is much lower than is needed for virgin-polyester (Kumarand Joshiba, 2020; Radhakrishman et al., 2020). However, as the rPET is sourced from China, the energy source used to produce this material will be from non-renewable means having an inherent impact to the rate of climate change.

“rPET reduces the amount of plastic waste within the environment, having a positive impact on reducing waste from other supply chains and the impact of large plastic waste in the environment.”

Biodiversify

Although rPET reduces the amount of new plastic waste in the environment, it still contributes to the accumulation of micro-plastic pollution in the environment during the manufacturing process and during use, which as previously discussed has impacts on marine life (Cole et al., 2013; Browne et al.,2013; Setälä et al., 2014; Nelms et al., 2019; Botterell et al., 2019). However, the release of micro-plastics during the use of the shoe is likely to be low due to the low external wear of the rPET as it is part of the inner lining and there is a lower likelihood that the shoes will be washed in a washing machine.

Ultimately it is important to note that aspect climate projects have a low amount of plastic present within their shoes compared to alternative shoes on the market. aspect climate projects have made the trade-off between using more petroleum-based materials or using smaller amounts of plastic to increase the durability of less durable plant-based materials - in this instance, reinforcing the corn-based lining – to increase the long-term sustainability of their supply chain, by utilising renewable materials where possible.

assessment and comparison

future recommendations

In the long term, it is worth considering how the movement towards rPET by large multinational brands, the limited times plastic can be recycled and the reliance on a material made from a finite resource (crude oil), may impact the sourcing of this material and the impact this will have on virgin-plastic production. Mechanical recycling is inherently restricted as plastic can only go through this process a limited number of times and contamination within recycling plants often restricts there cycling of recycled plastic. Ultimately, this supply chain still relies upon the non-renewable energy sector, which is inherently unsustainable. However, within the current climate of the industry this is a good starting position for aspect climate projects’ supply chain.

research findings

We suggest cork sourced from cork trees (Quercus suber L.) in Portugal to be of low risk to nutrient loading and other forms of pollution. The risk to habitat destruction, climate change and alien species is low.

In Portugal, the world’s largest producer of cork and home to the largest area of cork trees (APCOR2012), cork woodlands (called Montados) are traditionally managed as a multifunction agro-forestry system (Dias et al., 2014). In the past, WWF (2002) increased outreach to increase consumption of cork, due to the movement of the wine industry to plastic stoppers. WWF aimed to protect the essential habitats that the forests/woodlands provide in the Mediterranean basis, due to their low human impact and high plant and fauna diversity value. The montados are home to several threatened and endemic species, including the Iberian Lynx (Lynx paradinus) and the Iberian Imperial Eagle (Aquila adalberti) (Simonson et al., 2018; Essen et al., 2019). Due to the trees long standing age, cork trees are a highly valuable source of carbon storage (Pereita et al., 2007; Palma et al., 2014;Demertzi et al., 2016).

“Due to the trees long standing age, cork trees are a highly valuable source of carbon storage (Pereita et al., 2007; Palma et al., 2014; Demertzi et al., 2016). . ”

Biodiversify

The high ecosystem value of these managed habitats for ecology and climate change mitigation has led to cork trees being identified as a priority species by WWF/ANP. However, due to a loss of traditional knowledges and practices in the industry, cork woodlands are at threat of being abandoned and replaced by more intensively farmed crops and rural abandonment (Essen et al.,2019). These habitats can only continue through constant balanced management. Without sustainable management, soil degradation, invasive species and forest fires would prevail, significantly reducing the carbon storage and biodiversity value of these habitats (Riberio et al., 2011). Therefore, by investing in this industry aspect climate projects are increasing the likelihood that this highly valuable habitat will be safe guarded from being lost. Furthermore, the sourcing of organic cork is likely to help protect against unsustainable management.

assessment and comparison

future recommendations

Cork woodlands are also believed to be at risk from the pressures of future climate change, with yields potentially decreasing if the planet continues to warm in line with current projections, due to the threats from drought, disease and more intense forest fires – with an increase of 2.9 degrees potentially decreasing cork production by 20% (Essen et al., 2019). This should be considered as this is a risk to the supply chain in the very long term. However, the sourcing of organic and sustainably managed cork is likely to increase the resilience of the woodlands to future climatic changes.

research summary

- Organic corn production is more accommodating for biodiversity (Smith et al., 2020). Lack of extensive research. Yield may be lower thus requiring more land (Smith et al., 2020; Sanhu et al.,2020).

- Limited / no use of synthetic chemicals. However, limited research into the impacts of leaching on organic farms (Sanhu et al., 2020).

- Some uncertainty surrounding the use of tilling on organic farms and the impact on soil (Sanhu etal., 2020). However, some evidence that even tilled organic farms have improved soil quality than conventional systems (Seitz et al., 2019). Oeko-Tex certification for dyes.

- Limited / no use of synthetic fertilisers reduces CO2 emissions (Sanhu et al., 2020). However, some findings suggest similar levels of N2O and CH4 emissios (Sanhu et al., 2020). Inconclusive results.

assessment and comparison

future recommendations

- Limited knowledge around the energy and chemical demands to process the corn into the end polymers. More scientific research is needed for comparison to conventional alternatives.

research summary

- Limited consensus on how increasing demand for PLA is changing the landscape of maize crops.

- Soil compaction and erosion problems as well as the intensive chemical regimes increasing eutrophication (Smith et al., 2017).

- Soil erosion is often a problem, increasing run off (Smith et al., 2017). High chemical waste potential.

- High reliance on fertilisers (Smith et al., 2017).

- Biodegradable.

assessment and comparison

future recommendations

- Ensuring increased global demand doesn’t increase pressure on land or food security.

- Consider that the trade off is plastic.

research summary

- Sourced from one of the most diverse regions on the planet (Abdulah, 2015). Malaysia is a major producer of Latex, as well as other land demanding cash crops which have negatively contributed to land conversion of forests and peatland in the region (Schier-Uijl, 2013).

- Extensive use of fertilisers during immature stage (Vrignon-Brenas et al., 2019). Past evidence of reduced chemical use across rubber farms however this is likely due to increase cover of palm oil rather than less use within rubber farms themselves (FAO, 2004).

- Good wastewater policies, however Malaysia currently ranks poorly on wastewater management suggesting that these measures have not yet taken effect (EPI, 2020).

- Malaysia has good climate policies but currently performs poorly for climate measures (EPI, 2020).

- Latex does not need as much processing as rubber (Li et al., 2008). Mixed consensus on the carbon sequestation potential of rubber trees (Li et al., 2008; Annamalainathan et al., 2011; Yiping et al.,2014; Blagodatsky et al., 2017; Vrignon-Brenas et al., 2019).

- Biodegradable

assessment and comparison

future recommendations

- Monitor for potential improvements in Malaysia’s policies and governance - notably if pressure from alternative markets was reduced.

- Look to work with Fair Rubber or FSC certified sources.

- Be aware of current trade off in material would likely be plastic.

research summary

- Conventional cotton fields often converted to organic cotton fields. Only around 1% of cotton produced is organic. Uses less water , however reduced yields (Kooistra, 2006).

- No use of synthetic chemicals (Kooistra, 2006). Lower eutrophication potential has been suggested (Kooistra, 2006).

- Undyed. Lower use of intensive machinery and practices (Kooistra, 2006).

- Research suggests organic cotton has a lower climate change potential than conventional cotton and BCI cotton, with lower acidification potential and energy demands (Kooistra, 2006).

assessment and comparison

future recommendations

- Monitor how the reduced yield will impact future land pressure if demand increases.

research summary

- Huge demand on land, water and chemical input, highly intensified and mechanised (Kooistra,2006).

- Huge reliance upon pesticides and fertiliser application (Kooistra, 2006).

- Soil degredation (Kooistra, 2006).

- High application of fertiliser and high reliance upon machinery (Kooistra, 2006).

assessment and comparison

future recommendations

- Look to move to an organic cotton or less resource dependent alternative.

research summary

- Reliance upon the supply of crude-oil which has negative impacts from oil spills and extraction activities (Smith et al., 2017); Troisi et al., 2016; Farmer et al., 2018).

- Microplastic pollution (Cole et al., 2013; Browne et al., 2013; Setala et al., 2014; Nelms et al., 2019; Botterell et al., 2015) though less likely in footwear than clothing as not washed. Wastewater pollution. Also a consideration.

- Relies upon the extraction of fossil fuels. Energy dependent. Impacts varies depending on knit or woven (Kirchain et al., 2015).

assessment and comparison

future recommendations

- Working with sourcing company to understand current energy sources used to produce polyester.

- Move towards recycled alternative.

- Be aware of current trade off of removal would mean reducing durability of seams on shoes, reducing their longevity.

The design process undertaken by aspect climate projects is a gold standard example of how shoe design can truly consider the environmental impact of the production process.

Biodiversify

conclusions

From the start, the shoe has been designed to consider every component and removed those which are unnecessary or high impact (e.g. metal eyelets). This is an important process that forms a key part of the ‘Avoid’ stage of the mitigation hierarchy. The vast majority of environmental impact occurs at the sourcing of raw materials and aspect climate projects have considered this in the design of every part of its shoes. Innovative use of waste and recycled materials means the environmental risk of this shoe is likely far lower than typical alternatives. We commend aspect climate projects for their due diligence and showing exemplary leadership to the rest of the footwear sector.

recommendations

natural rubber

We would advise that aspect climate projects monitor the reviews and audits provided by the FSC (to be produced next year), to ensure that issues of a lack of reporting are resolved (notably those relating to biodiversity) and that they ensure that certification continues to be awarded. We believe that the sourcing of FSC rubber is a positive step in the supply-chain of rubber sourcing, and is only limited by the governance regulations and management strategies outside the reach of small companies like aspect climate projects. Therefore, we would propose that aspect climate projects offset any residue impacts by directly investing in biodiversity and climate projects in the region through organisations such as REDD+.

pineapple and coconut

While Pinatex and coconut husk are produced from a waste product, the appetite for use of bio-materials is ever increasing. We recommend monitoring the situation every two years to ensure that this is not driving agricultural expansion of pineapple/coconut products.

cork

Seek further clarity over the sourcing of cork and aim, if possible, to source from areas identified in the Green Heart of Cork WWF project (a payment for ecosystems project that awarded landowners for their responsible forest practices).

RED++

Even with the thorough research of the aspect climate projects team in designing the shoe, it is impossible to eliminate its environmental impact completely. As per the mitigation hierarchy, compensatory measures are important in reducing the residual biodiversity and climate impact. As aspect climate projects is a small company the most effective way to do so is to support projects which benefit nature and people in the area where its impact is being produced. REDD+ is a programme which aids countries' efforts to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and foster conservation, sustainable management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. REDD+ is essentially a vehicle to encourage developing countries to reduce emissions and enhance removals of greenhouse gases through a variety of forest management options, and to provide technical and financial support for these efforts. Supporting this process in Guatemala (linked to rubber risk from the sole) would be a robust way in helping to reduce the residual impact of the shoe.

transparency

aspect climate projects could contribute to the ‘Transform’ element of the mitigation hierarchy by transparently showing the results of this audit so as to allow consumers and other companies to fully understand the scope of the shoe. This level of detail is something that is not currently available and would help to push the sector to consider the full scope of materials within their shoes and where and how they are sourced.

what was assessed?

A risk assessment was carried out on every material used on the aspect climate projects style Suber.

It is important to note the absence of some features that make up conventional shoes. For example, on the eyelets and backing for the shoes upper. These features were considered by aspect climate projects to not add any additional value to the shoe, therefore, were excluded to eliminate any unnecessary materials being made and thus reduce the overall environmental impact of the shoe.

criteria

To determine the level of risk posed by each material, a desk-based literature review was completed. The region of origin for each material, based upon communication by aspect climate projects’s suppliers, was considered for each risk category.

Risk was considered in relation to a range of the most concerning direct pressures on biodiversity, as identified in the IPBES Global Assessment

Pollution threat was broken up into excessive nutrient loading (caused notably by excessive or mismanaged fertilizer and pesticide application) and other pollution forms (which referred to, but was not exclusive to, chemical waste, soil erosion and material break-down residue). The threat to climate change referred to the contribution of the materials production to the rate of climate change, including ocean acidification.

measuring risk

The material risk assessment was produced by adapting the risk assessment presented by Aiama et al., within the IUCN report (2016), covering a greater depth and breadth of different degrees of risk. The risk rating was created by assessing the magnitude of risk as well as the probability of that risk occuring and was scored either low, medium or high.

When creating a scorecard for each material, the risk rating was then considered against the certainty of findings, again scored low medium or high.

The level of certainty was based on the amount of literature available on the material as well as the information available on the sourcing location of that material. In the case that a sourcing region was unknown, it was assumed that it came from the largest exporting country of that material or the sourcing region of the end material.

baseline

The assessment calculated the risk posed by each material used as well as the amount within the shoes.

The risk assessment should not be taken at face value but instead given context within the current limits of the industry, with comparison to traditional material and important trade-offs for design, functionality, and cost.

To provide a comparison, a baseline risk assessment was performed on a hypothetical version of the same style if made using industrially standard materials.

general references

Abdullah, M., Parid Mamat, M., Rusli Yaacob, M., Radam, A., & Hin Fui, L. (2015) ‘Estimate the Conservation Value of Biodiversity in National Heritage Site: A Case of Forest Research Institute Malaysia’. Procedia Environmental Sciences. 30,
180-185.

Amec Forest Wheeler Environment & Infrastructure UK Ltd. (2016) ‘Study on the assessment and management of environmental impacts and risks resulting from the exploration and production of hydrocarbons – Final Report’ European Commission.

Annamalainathan, K., Satheesh, P. R., & Jacob, J. (2011) ECOSYSTEM FLUX MEASUREMENTS IN RUBBER PLANTATIONS. Natural Rubber Research, 24(1): 28-37.

Asim, M., Abdan, K., Jawaid, M., Nasir, M., Dashtizadeh, Z., Ishak, M. R., Hoque, M. E. and Deng, Y. (2015) ‘A review on pineapple leaves fibre and its composites’, International Journal of Polymer Science.

Bishop C.A., Collins B., Mineau P., Burgess N.M., Read W.F., Risley C. (2000) Reproduction of cavity-nesting birds in pesticide-sprayed apple orchards in southern Ontario, Canada, 1988–1994, Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 19, 588–599.

Blagodatsky, S., XU, J. and Cadisch, G. (2016) ‘Carbon balance of rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) plantations: A review of uncertainties at plot, landscape and production level’, Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 221, 8-19.

Botterell, Z. L. R., Beaumont, N., Dorrington, T., Steinke, M., Thompson, R. C. and Lindeque, P. K. (2019) ‘Bioavailability and
effects of microplastics on marine zooplankton: A review’, Environmental Pollution. 98–110.

Bouvier JC, Toubon JF, Boivin T, Sauphanor B (2005) ‘Effects of apple orchard management strategies on the great tit
(Parus major) in southeastern France’. Environ Toxicol Chem. 24, 2846–2852.

Browne, M. A., Niven, S. J., Galloway, T. S., Rowland, S. J. and Thompson, R. C. (2013) ‘Microplastic moves pollutants and additives to worms, reducing functions linked to health and biodiversity’, Current Biology. 23(23), 2388–2392.

Brunet, J., Fritz, O., & Richnau, G. (2010) ‘Biodiversity in European beech forests - a review with recommendations for sustainable forest management’. Ecological Bulletins, 53, 77–94.

Business Wire (2021) ‘Natural Rubber Market - Growth, Trends, COVID-19 Impact, and Forecasts (2021 - 2026)’. https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20211208005932/en/Worldwide-Natural-Rubber-Industry-to-2026---Asia-P
acific-Dominates-the-Market---ResearchAndMarkets.com.

Chang (2019) ‘How rubber farmers can reduce risk and help the environment (commentary)’, Mongabay. [Online]
https://news.mongabay.com/2019/09/how-rubber-farmers-can-reduce-risk-and-help-the- environment-commentary/

Cole, M., Lindeque, P., Fileman, E., Halsband, C., Goodhead, R., Moger, J. and Galloway, T. S (2013) ‘Microplastic ingestion
by zooplankton’, Environmental Science and Technology. American Chemical Society, 47(12), 6646–6655.

Convention on Biological Diversity (no date) ‘Indonesia – main details’, source: https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=id.

Demertzi, M., Paulo, J. A., Arroja, L. and Dias, A. C. (2016) ‘A carbon footprint simulation model for the cork oak sector’, Science of the Total Environment. 566–567, 499–511.

Dias FS, Bugalho MN, Rodriguez-Gonzalez PM, Albuquerque A, Cerdeira JO (2014) ‘Effects of forest certification on the ecological condition of Mediterranean streams’, Journal of Applied Ecology.

Enrici, A. M., and K. Hubacek. 2018. Challenges for REDD+ in Indonesia: a case study of three project sites. Ecology and
Society 23(2):7. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-09805-23020

Environmental Performnace Index (EPI) (2020) ‘Environmental Performance Index, results for Austria’. Yale University.
[Online] https://epi.yale.edu/epi-results/2020/country/aut

Environnemental Performance Index (EPI) (2020) ‘Environmental Performance Index, results for Malaysia’ Yale University.
[Online] https://epi.yale.edu/epi-results/2020/country/mys

Environmental Performance Index - 2020 EPI results (2020) Yale University. [Online]
https://epi.yale.edu/epi-results/2020/component/epi (Accessed: 2 October 2020).

EPI1 (2020) ‘Results’ EPI, Yale University. [Online] https://epi.yale.edu/epi-results/2020/component/epi

EPI2 (2020) ‘Results – Ecosystem Vitality’, EPI, Yale University. [Online] https://epi.yale.edu/epiresults/
2020/component/eco

Esperante (2018) ‘Sustainability on the Latin America Natural Rubber Industry’, APABOR. [Online] http://www.abrabor.org.br/discovirtual/Relatorios_Abertos/2019/ARTIGO_CONGRESSO_IRRDB2018_Sustatabilidade.pdf

Essen, V. M., Rosário, I. T., Santos-Reis, M. and Nicholas, K. A. (2019) ‘Valuing and mapping cork and carbon across land use scenarios in a Portuguese montado landscape’, PLOS ONE. Edited by M. E. Saunders. 14(3).

FAO (2014) ‘Environmental performance of animal feeds supply chains Guidelines for quantification’. FAO, Rome.

Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. (2004) ‘Fertilizer use by crop in Malaysia’. FAO. Rome.

Forest Stewardship Council (2017) “FSC – Certified natural rubber: Deforestation free, socially responsible”, FSC.

FSC (2018) ‘Pesticide Policy’, FSC. https://fsc.org/en/for-forests/pesticidespolicy#:~:
text=Pesticides%20strictly%20regulated,-the%20use%20of&text=In%20short%2C%20our%20pesticides%20policy,hazardous%20chemical%20pesticides%20is%20eliminated

FSC https://fsc.org/en/newsfeed/fsc-is-a-founding-member-of-the-global-platform-for-sustainable-natural- rubber

Genghini, M., Gellini, S. & Gustin, M. (2006) ‘Organic and integrated agriculture: the effects on bird communities in orchard
farms in northern Italy’, Biodiversity & Conservation. 15, 3077-3094.

Gleekia, A. (2016) ‘Impacts of iron ore mining on water quality and the environment in Liberia’, in Geominetech Symposium: New Equipment New Technology - Management and Safety in Mines and Mineral Based Industries.

González-García, S., Dias, C. A. and Arroja, L. (2013) ‘Life-cycle assessment of typical Portuguese cork woodlands’. Science of the Total Environment. 355-364.

Grow Asia (2020)
http://exchange.growasia.org/system/files/200615_GA%20Rubber%20Report_Digital%20%28Final%29.pdf

Gunay, M. (2013) ‘Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing’ IntechOpen.

Haddaway, N. R., Cooke, S. J., Lesser, P., Macura, B., Nilsson, A. E., Taylor, J. J. and Raito, K. (2019) ‘Evidence of the impacts of metal mining and the effectiveness of mining mitigation measures on social-ecological systems in Arctic and boreal regions: A systematic map protocol’, Environmental Evidence. 8(1), p. 9.

Hua, M., Warren-Thomas, E. and Wanger, T. (2021) ‘Rubber agroforestry: feasibility at scale’. Mighty Earth. https://www.mightyearth.org/wp-content/uploads/Mighty-Earth-Agroforestry-Rubber-Report-May-2021.pdf

Indonesia Investments (2018) https://www.indonesia-investments.com/business/commodities/rubber/item185?

IPBES (2019): Global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy
Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. E. S. Brondizio, J. Settele, S. Díaz, and H. T. Ngo (editors). IPBES secretariat, Bonn, Germany.

Jong (2021) https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/2021-deforestation-in-indonesia-hits-record-low-but-experts-fear-a-rebound/

Kengkhetkit, N., Wongpreedee, T. and Amornsakchai, T. (2018) ‘Pineapple Leaf Fiber: From Waste to High-Performance Green Reinforcement for Plastics and Rubbers’, 271–291.

Kerr, J. and Landry, J. (2017) ‘Pulse of the Fashion Industry’, Global Fashion Agenda & The Boston Consulting Group.

Kirchain, R., Olivetti, E., Miller, R T., Greener, S., 2015, ‘Sustainable apparel materials: an overview of what we know and what could be done about the impact of four major apparel materials: cotton, polyester, leather, & Rubber’. Materials Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts institute of technology, Cambridge.

Kooistra, K., Termorschuizen, A. & Pyburn, R. (2006) ‘The sustainability of cotton: consequences of man and environment’. Science Shop Wageningen UR. 223.

Kumar P and Joshiba G. (2020) ‘Properties of Recycled Polyester. In: Muthu S. (eds) Recycled Polyester’. Textile Science and
Clothing Technology. Singapore.

Kurz, I., Coxon, C., Tunney, H., Ryan, D., 2005b. Effects of grassland management practices and environmental conditions
on nutrient concentrations in overland flow. Journal of Hydrology 304, 35- 5

Kurz, I., Tunney, H., Coxon, C., 2005a. The impact of agricultural management practices on nutrient losses to water: data on the effects of soil drainage characteristics. Water Science and Technology 51, 73-81.

Lellis, B., Fávaro-Polonio, C. Z., Pamphile, J. A. and Polonio, J. C. (2019) ‘Effects of textile dyes on health and the environment and bioremediation potential of living organisms’, Biotechnology Research and Innovation. 3(2), 275–290.

Li, H., Ma, Y., Aide, T. M. and Liu, W. (2008) ‘Past, present and future land-use in Xishuangbanna, China and the
implications for carbon dynamics’, Forest Ecology and Management. 255(1), 16–24.

Li, H., Ma, Y., Liu, W. & Liu, W. (2012). ‘Soil changes induced by rubber and tea plantation establishment: comparison with
tropical rain forest soil in Xishuangbanna, SW China’. Environ. Manage., 50, 837-848.

Nelms, S. E., Barnett, J., Brownlow, A., Davison, N. J., Deaville, R., Galloway, T. S., Lindeque, P. K., Santillo, D. and Godley, B.
J. (2019) ‘Microplastics in marine mammals stranded around the British coast: ubiquitous but transitory?’, Scientific Reports. 9(1), 1–8.

Nizami SM, Yiping Z, Liqing S, Zhao W, Zhang X (2014) ‘Managing Carbon Sinks in Rubber (Hevea brasilensis) Plantation by Changing Rotation length in SW China’. 9(12).

Norgate, T. E., Jahanshahi, S. and Rankin, W. J. (2007) ‘Assessing the environmental impact of metal production’, Journal of cleaner production

Otten, F., Hein, J., Bondy, H. and Faust, H. (2020) Deconstructing sustainable rubber production: contesting narratives in rural Sumatra, Journal of Land Use Science, 2-3(15), 306-326. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1747423X.2019.1709225

Palma, J., Paulo, M. and Tomé (2014) ‘Carbon sequestration of modern Quercus suber L., silvoarable systems in Portugal: a
YieldSAFE-based estimation’ Agrofor. Syst., 88. 791-801

Pathiraja, E. (2016) ‘The economic impact of climate change on perennial crops: the coconut industry in Sri Lanka and the
value of adaptation strategies’, The University of Melbourne.

Pereira, H. (2007) ‘Cork biology, production and uses’ B.V, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Periyasamy A.P., Militky J. (2020) ‘Sustainability in Textile Dyeing: Recent Developments’. In: Muthu S., Gardetti M. (eds) Sustainability in the Textile and Apparel Industries. Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry. Springer.

Potapov, A., Schaefer, I., Jochum, M., Widyastuti, R., Eisenhauer, N. and Scheu, S. (2021) ‘Oil palm and rubber expansion facilitates earthworm invasion in Indonesia’, Biological invasions. 23, 2783–2795. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10530-021-02539-y

Radhakrishnan, S., Vetrivel. P., Vinodkumar, A. and Palanisamy, H. (2020) ‘Recycled Polyester – Tool for savings in the use of virgin raw material’, In: Muthu S. (eds) Environmental Footprints of recycled polyester. Textile Science and Clothing Technology. Singapore.

Ranasinghe, C. S. (no date) ‘Climate Change Impacts on Coconut Production and Potential Adaptation and Mitigation Measures: A Review of Current Status’.

Reuters (2021) https://www.reuters.com/business/cop/indonesias-2021-rubber-exports-seen-flat-yy-245-mln-t-2021-11-03/

Ribeiro, N., Pinto-Correia, T. and Sá-Sousa, P. (2011) ‘Introducing the montado, the cork and holm oak agroforestry system of Southern Portugal’, Agroforestry Systems. 99–104.

Rodale Institute (2012) ‘The farming systems trial: celebrating 30 years’. Rodale Press, Pennsylvania

Rojas-Downing, M. M., Nejadhashemi, A. P., Harrigan, T. and Woznicki, S. A. (2017) ‘Climate change and livestock: Impacts, adaptation, and mitigation’, Climate Risk Management. 145–163

Rosegrant, M. and Sombilla, M. (2019) ‘Considerations of Philippine Agriculture Under a Changing Climate: Policies,
Investments and Scenarios’, Yusof Ishak Institute. ISEAS Publishing.Rösler S. (2003) Natur- und Sozialverträglichkeit des
Integrierten Obstbaus, Ph.D. thesis University of Kassel, Germany, 430.

Sandhu, H., Scialabba, N., Warner, C., Behzadnejad, F., Keohane. K., Houston, R. & Fujiwara, D. (2020) ‘Evaluating the holistic costs and benefits of corn production systems in Minnesota, US’. Scientific Reports. 10.

Schrier-Uijl, A. P., Silvius, M., Parish, F., Lim, K. H., Rosediana, S., & Anshari, G. (2013). ‘Environmental and social impacts of oil palm cultivation on tropical peat:-a scientific review’. Reports from the Technical Panels of the 2nd Greenhouse Gas
Working Group of the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO). 131-168.

Schmidt, C. (2012) ‘Exxon Valdez Vs. deepwater horizon: ES&T’s top feature article 2011’ Environ. Sci. 46. 3603-360 Setälä, O., Fleming-Lehtinen, V and Lehtiniemi, M. (2014) ‘Ingestion and transfer of microplastics in the planktonic food web’, Environ. Pollut., 185, 77-83

Seitz, S., Goebes, P., Puerta, V. L., Pereira, E. I. P., Wittwer, R., Six, J., van der Heijden, M. G. A., & Scholten, T. (2019). Conservation tillage and organic farming reduce soil erosion. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 39(1), 1–10.

Simon, S., Bouvier, J., Debras, J. & Sauphanor, B. (2010) ‘ Biodiversity and pest management in orchard systems. A review’ Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 30, 139-152.

Simonson, W. D., Allen, H. D., Parham, E., Santos, E. and Hotham, P. (2018) ‘Modelling biodiversity trends in the montado (wood pasture) landscapes of the Alentejo, Portugal’, Landscape Ecology. 33(5), 811–827.

Smith, O. M., Cohen, A. L., Reganold, J. P., Jones, M. S., Orpet, R. J., Taylor, J. M., Thurman, J. H., Cornell, K. A., Olsson, R. L.,
Ge, Y., Kennedy, C. M., & Crowder, D. W. (2020) ‘Landscape context affects the sustainability of organic farming systems’.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 117(6), 2870–2878.

Smith, T. M., Goodkind, A. L., Kim, T., Pelton, R. E. O., Suh, K., & Schmitt, J. (2017). Subnational mobility and consumption-based environmental accounting of US corn in animal protein and ethanol supply chains. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 114(38), 7891–7899.

Texon International Group Limited (2020) ‘Zero footprint, better impact: Texon International Group Limited, Sustainability
Report 2019’, TEXON.

Umami, I., Kaarudin, K., Hermansah., and ABE, S. (2019) ‘Does Soil Fertility Decline under Smallholder Rubber Farming? e
Case of a West Sumatran Lowland in Indonesia’, Japan Agricultural Research Quarterly. 53(4), 279-287
https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jarq/53/4/53_279/_article

Vale, P., Gibbs, H., Vale, R., Christie, M., Florence, E., Munger, J. and Sabaini, D. (2019) ‘The Expansion of Intensive Beef
Farming to the Brazilian Amazon’, Global Environmental Change.

Villamor, G., Le, Q., Djanibekov, U., Noordwjjk, M. & Vlek, P. (2014) ‘Biodiversity in rubber agroforests, carbon emissions, and rural livelihoods: An agent-based model of land-use dynamics in lowland Sumatra’, Environmental Modelling & Software. 61, 151-165.

Vrignon-Brenas S., Gay F., Ricard S., Snoeck D., Perron T., Mareschal L., Laclau J. and Malagoli P. (2019) ‘Nutrient
management of immature rubber plantations. A review’. Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 39(1), 11.

Warren-Thomas, E., Dolman, P. & Edward, D. (2015) Increasing Demand for Natural Rubber Necessitates a Robust Sustainability Initiative to Mitigate Impacts on Tropical Biodiversity’, A Journal of the Society for Conservation Biology.
http://www.edwardslab.group.shef.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Warren-thomas-et-al.-2015.pdf

Warren-Thomas, E.M., Edwards, D.P., Bebber, D.P. et al. (2018) Protecting tropical forests from the rapid expansion of rubber using carbon payments. Nat Commun 9, 911 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-03287- WWF (2009) ‘Preserving Mediterranean’s cork’, World Wildlife Fund. [Online] https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_offices/wwf_portugal/index.cfm?uProjectID=9E0722

Zanotelli, D., Montagnani, L., Manca, G., Scandellari, F., & Tagliavini, M. (2015) ‘Net ecosystem carbon balance of an apple orchard’. European Journal of Agronomy, 63, 97–104.